The Greater and Lesser Jihad
The Prophet is reported to have returned from a military expedition and said: “We have returned from the lesser jihad to the greater jihad.” When asked what the greater jihad was, he replied: “The jihad against the nafs.”
This hadith — transmitted by al-Bayhaqi and others — is sometimes questioned on isnad grounds by hadith critics, but its meaning is affirmed by the Quran itself: “And as for those who strive for Us — We will surely guide them to Our ways.” (29:69). The primary connotation of jihad in the Quran is this internal striving.
The Legal Conditions of Armed Combat
Classical jurisprudence (across all four Sunni schools and Shia law) established strict conditions for qital (armed fighting) to be lawful:
Authorization: Armed jihad cannot be declared by individuals; it requires the authority of a legitimate ruler or imam who has responsibility for the community.
Cause: Permitted to repel aggression (al-daf’ — defense), prevent religious persecution, or fulfill treaty obligations. Pre-emptive offensive wars on the basis of religious difference alone is disputed among classical jurists.
Prohibitions: Classical law prohibits killing non-combatants (women, children, elderly, monks, farmers not participating in combat), desecrating the dead, destroying trees, poisoning wells, and breaking agreements.
Ending: A valid peace treaty (muwada’a) ends hostilities. The Quran says: “And if they incline to peace, then incline to it [also].” (8:61)
The Internal Jihad: Mujahada
Islamic mysticism elaborated the internal dimension of jihad as mujahada — the systematic struggle against the tendencies of the nafs al-ammara (the commanding self that inclines toward what harms the soul). The stations of the Sufi path — repentance, patience, gratitude, reliance on God, acceptance, love — are all forms of internal jihad, each requiring exertion against the self’s resistance.
See also: Tazkiyah, Nafs Al Ammara, Sulook, Fiqh Al Tahara, Quran Sciences, Seerah Ali