The Trigger: Murder of Uthman (35 AH / 656 CE)
Uthman ibn Affan’s caliphate (24-35 AH) attracted growing opposition over his final years, centered on accusations of nepotism (appointing Umayyad relatives to governors) and administrative irregularities. Rebels from Egypt, Kufa, and Basra besieged his home in Medina for weeks. He was murdered while reading the Quran — a death that shocked the community and created an immediate political crisis: who was responsible, and how should the murder be avenged?
Battle of the Camel (36 AH / 656 CE, Basra)
Ali ibn Abi Talib, now the fourth Caliph, faced an opposition coalition led by:
- Aisha (the Prophet’s wife)
- Talha ibn Ubaydullah (among the ten promised paradise)
- Zubayr ibn al-Awwam (cousin of the Prophet, also among the ten)
Their demand: identify and punish Uthman’s murderers before any consolidation of Ali’s caliphate. Ali argued that stability must come first. The battle at Basra resulted in victory for Ali; Talha and Zubayr were killed. Aisha was escorted safely back to Medina.
The battle is named after Aisha’s camel (jamal), around which the fighting centered.
Battle of Siffin (37 AH / 657 CE, near the Euphrates)
Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan — Uthman’s cousin and governor of Syria — refused to recognize Ali’s caliphate until Uthman’s murder was avenged. The two armies met at Siffin, on the Euphrates, in a drawn-out engagement. When Ali’s forces appeared to gain the upper hand, Muawiya’s Syrian army raised copies of the Quran on their spears — calling for arbitration (tahkim) rather than continued fighting.
The arbitration of Adhruh (37-38 AH) failed to produce agreement and effectively ended in advantage for Muawiya. Ali was subsequently assassinated by a Kharijite in 40 AH / 661 CE.
See also: Seerah Umar Caliphate, Seerah Uthman, Ali Ibn Abi Talib, Sahaba, Seerah Muawiya, Bohra Ashara, Khatm Al Nubuwwa